Cells continually monitor their environment in order to modulate physiological and biochemical processes which in turn affects future behaviour. Frequently, a cell's initial interaction with its surroundings occurs via receptors expressed on the plasma membrane. Activation of these receptors, whether through binding endogenous ligands (such as cytokines) or exogenous ligands (such as antigens), triggers a biochemical cascade from the membrane through the cytoplasm to the nucleus.
Of the endogenous ligands, cytokines represent a particularly important and versatile group. Cytokines are proteins which regulate the survival, proliferation, differentiation and function of a variety of cells within the body [Nicola, 1994]. The haemopoietic cytokines have in common a four-alpha helical bundle structure and the vast majority interact with a structurally related family of cell surface receptors, the type I and type II cytokine receptors [Bazan, 1990; Sprang, 1993]. In all cases, ligand-induced receptor aggregation appears to be a critical event in initiating intracellular signal transduction cascades. Some cytokines, for example growth hormone, erythroprotein (Epo) and granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), trigger receptor homodimerisation, while for other cytokines, receptor heterodimerisation or heterotrimerisation is crucial. In the latter-case, several cytokines share common receptor subunits and on this basis can be grouped into three subfamilies with similar patterns of intracellular activation and similar biological effects [Hilton, 1994]. Interleukin-3 (IL-3), IL-5 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) use the common β-receptor subunit (βc) and each cytokine stimulates the production and functional activity of granulocytes and macrophages. IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-15 each use the common γ-chain (γc), while IL-4 and IL-13 share an alternative γ-chain (γ′c or IL-13 receptor α-chain). Each of these cytokines plays an important role in regulating acquired immunity in the lymphoid system. Finally, IL-6, IL-11, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), oncostatin-M (OSM), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and cardiotrophin (CT) share the receptor subunit gp130. Each of these cytokines appears to be highly pleiotropic, having effects both within and outside the haemopoietic system [Nicola, 1994].
In all of the above cases at least one subunit of each receptor complex contains the conserved sequence elements, termed box1 and box2, in their cytoplasmic tails [Murakami, 1991]. Box1 is a proline-rich motif which is located more proximal to the transmembrane domain than the acidic box 2 element. The box-1 region serves as the binding site for a class of cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases termed JAKs (Janus kinases). Ligand-induced receptor dimerisation serves to increase the catalytic activity of the associated JAKs through cross-phosphorylation. Activated JAKs then tyrosine phosphorylate several substrates, including the receptors themselves. Specific phosphotyrosine residues on the receptor then serve as docking sites for SH2-containing proteins, the best characterised of which are the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) and the adaptor protein, shc. The STATs are then phosphorylated on tyrosines, probably by JAKs. dissociate from the receptor and form either homodimers or heterodimers through the interaction of the SH2 domain of one STAT with the phosphotyrosine residue of the other. STAT dimers then translocate to the nucleus where they bind to specific cytokine-responsive promoters and activate transcription [Darnell, 1994; Ihle, 1995; Ihle, 1995]. In a separate pathway, tyrosine phosphorylated shc interacts with another SH2 domain-containing protein, Grb-2, leading ultimately to activation of members of the MAP kinase family and in turn transcription factors such as fos and jun [Sato, 1993; Cutler, 1993]. These pathways are not unique to members of the cytokine receptor family since cytokines that bind receptor tyrosine kinases also being able to activate STATs and members of the MAP kinase family [David, 1996; Leaman, 1996; Shual, 1993; Sato, 1993;, Cutler, 1993].
Four members of the JAK family of cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases have been described, JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 and TYK2, each of which binds to a specific subset of cytokine receptor subunits. Six STATs have been described (STAT1 through STAT6), and these too are activated by distinct cytokine/receptor complexes. For example, STAT1 appears to be functionally specific to the interferon system, STAT4 appears to be specific to IL-12, while STAT6 appears to be specific for IL-4 and IL-13. Thus, despite common activation mechanisms some degree of cytokine specificity may be achieved through the use of specific JAKs and STATs [Thierfelder, 1996; Kaplan, 1996; Takeda, 1996; Shimoda, 1996; Meraz, 1996; Durbin, 1996].
In addition to those described above, there are clearly other mechanisms of activation of these pathways. For example, the JAK/STAT pathway appears to be able to activate MAP kinases independent of the shc-induced pathway [David, 1995] and the STATs themselves can be activated without binding to the receptor, possibly by direct interaction with JAKs [Gupta, 1996]. Conversely, full activation of STATS may require the action of MAP kinase in addition to that of JAKs [David, 1995; Wen, 1995].
While the activation of these signalling pathways is becoming better understood, little is known of the regulation of these pathways, including employment of negative or positive feedback loops. This is important since once a cell has begun to respond to a stimulus, it is critical that the intensity and duration of the response is regulated and that signal transduction is switched off. It is likewise desirable to increase the intensity of a response systemically or even locally as the situation requires.
In work leading up to the present invention, the inventors sought to isolate negative regulators of signal transduction. The inventors have now identified a new family of proteins which are capable of acting as regulators of signalling. The new family of proteins is defined as the suppressor of cytokine signalling (SOCS) family based on the ability of the initially identified SOCS molecules to suppress cytokine-mediated signalling. It should be noted, however, that not all members of the SOCS family need necessarily share suppressor function nor target solely cytokine mediated signalling. The SOCS family comprises at least three classes of protein molecules based on amino acid sequence motifs located N-terminal of a C-terminal motif called the SOCS box. The identification of this new family of regulatory molecules permits the generation of a range of effector or modulator molecules capable of modulating signal transduction and, hence, cellular responsiveness to a range of molecules including cytokines. The present invention, therefore, provides therapeutic and diagnostic agents based on SOCS proteins, derivatives, homologues, analogues and mimetics thereof as well as agonists and antagonists of SOCS proteins.